Jassim the Leader: Founder of Qatar Read online

  JASSIM THE LEADER

  FOUNDER OF QATAR

  JASSIM THE LEADER

  FOUNDER OF QATAR

  Mohamed A. J. Althani

  First published in Great Britain in 2012 by

  PROFILE BOOKS LTD

  3A Exmouth House

  Pine Street

  London EC1R 0JH

  www.profilebooks.com

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  Copyright © Mohamed A. J. Althani 2012

  The moral right of the author has been asserted.

  All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the publisher of this book.

  A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

  ISBN 978 1 78125 070 9

  eISBN 978 1 84765 912 5

  Typeset in Bembo by MacGuru Ltd

  [email protected]

  Printed and bound in Britain by Clays, Bungay, Suffolk

  The paper this book is printed on is certified by the © 1996 Forest Stewardship Council A.C. (FSC). It is ancient-forest friendly. The printer holds FSC chain of custody SGS-COC-2061

  This book is dedicated to my father,

  who first told me the story of Jassim’s legacy,

  and to my loving wife Hanadi and our children,

  Layan, Jassim and Jude

  CONTENTS

  List of illustrations

  Preface

  Qatar described

  Map of Qatar

  1 Introduction: 5,000 years in thirteen pages

  2 The Al Thani arrive

  3 An industry in need of a government

  4 Tribes and state formation

  5 Jassim’s father

  6 Jassim’s ascendancy

  7 Ottoman Qatar

  8 Qatar’s unity tested

  9 The Ottoman demise

  10 Sibling rivalry

  11 End of an era

  Conclusion

  Family tree showing line of descent of rulers of Qatar

  Glossary

  Bibliography

  Index

  ILLUSTRATIONS

  Map of the Gulf region and Arabian peninsula by Angelo de Conte Freducci, 1555 (© National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London)

  Map of the Gulf region and Arabian peninsula by Rigobert Bonne, c.1760 (© Classic Image/Alamy)

  Pearl fishing in the Arabian Gulf, c.1870. (Mary Evans Picture Library)

  Bedouin tribesmen in Qatar, January 1904. (bpk/Ethnologisches Museum, SMB/Hermann Burchardt)

  HMS Philomel at anchor in the Gulf, c.1900 (British Empire and Commonwealth Museum/akg-images/Universal Images Group)

  Fishing boat and the Diwan al Amiri on Doha seafront, 1950s. (© TopFoto)

  Fishermen on the seashore at Al Khor, 1970s. (© TopFoto)

  Traditional pearling vessel in 1985. (John Lockerbie)

  Bedouin camelriders in the Qatari desert, 1970s. (John Lockerbie)

  Bedouin tribesmen of the 1950s. (© TopFoto)

  A meeting of tribal leaders in the late 1970s. (John Lockerbie)

  Coastline near Fuwairit, 1970s. (John Lockerbie)

  The fort at Wajba, c.1930. (© Bertram Thomas/Royal Geographical Society, London)

  The village of Lusail. (courtesy of the author)

  Wakra in the 1980s. (John Lockerbie)

  Mosque in Doha, 1950s. (© TopFoto)

  Sand dunes west of Wukair, 1970s. (John Lockerbie)

  Present-day Doha: the corniche. (courtesy of the author)

  The corniche at Doha at night. (courtesy of the author)

  The modern port of Ras Laffan. (courtesy of the author)

  The Pearl Monument, Doha. (© Eric Nathan/arabianEye/Corbis)

  PREFACE

  LODGED BETWEEN a page-nine advertisement for dentures and the ramblings of a retired Victorian bantamweight, Britain’s Daily Express published news of a historic visit on 24 January 1935. But in true journalistic fashion, and not stopping to let the facts get in the way of a good story, Lord Beaverbrook’s paper made short work of misreporting the first ever official visit by a Qatari emir.

  Few Britons had heard of Qatar. And, quite frankly, any Qatari national would have been hard pressed to believe that the headline ‘Pearl King with 84 Wives’ had anything to do with their head of state’s attendance at King George V’s silver jubilee. Nevertheless, the article is historic; it acknowledged the Emirate as an independent, sovereign nation-state.

  No doubt this fact was lost on readers, whose eyebrows were probably well up their foreheads on learning that Emir Abdullah, son of Jassim bin Muhammad Bin Thani, kept a court of ‘astrologers, jesters, dancing girls and dervishes alleged to be gifted with prophecy’. I’m not sure who exactly would have alleged that – probably the editor or some underpaid Express hack – and there is no byline on the story either. But whoever wrote the article cannot ever have wondered what it takes to forge a divided, desert peninsula into a nation-state.

  To appreciate what it took to create Qatar, we’re going to have to use a fair bit of imagination. It’s easy to conceive of a time when there were no skyscrapers or schools, hospitals or roads, electricity or air-conditioning. But that is not nearly enough. To credit the true greatness of Sheikh Jassim bin Muhammad Bin Thani’s achievements, we’ll also have to imagine a land without security or borders, where British sailors and Ottoman soldiers, or Bahraini and Bedouin tribesmen, could – and often did – destroy entire villages.

  In short, we’ll have to imagine a place where there was no concept of unity except as an idea in one young man’s head. Unlike with Kuwait or Oman at the beginning of the nineteenth century, there was no inevitability that Qatar would emerge as a nation in its own right. That it did so, and would become one of the richest and most influential for its modest size, is testament to a truly remarkable man.

  QATAR DESCRIBED

  Geology, cartography and a little local knowledge

  The peninsula of Qatar covers an area of some ten thousand square kilometres, protruding, appendix-like, out of Arabia and into the Gulf. Technically, its surface consists of lower Eocene limestone and gypsum overlain in the south and south-west by Miocene marls and limestone. But to the layman, it is simple low-lying desert with two main folds in the west. This is the Dukhan ridge, where the first oil wells were drilled. These simple hills rise from the coast to a height of just over sixty metres, but extend for over fifty kilometres along the coast and five kilometres inland.

  In the centre of Qatar is a gradual swell, known as the mid-peninsula rise, occasionally exposing a limestone of slightly different character from that elsewhere. Indeed, on the southern end and the eastern flank of the Dukhan ridge, the sharply defined mesas and wind-eroded hills make up a very alien landscape. It is this same wind – the north-westerly shimal – that blows sand over much of the southeast, where the largest dunes are to be found.

  Although the peninsula is contiguous with the Hasa Province of Saudi Arabia, it is separated by vast salt flats. Travelling here can be a risky business, and the terrain appears to support local tradition that Qatar was formerly an island. This might in turn explain why, until about three hundred years ago, Qatar was often shown on maps as completely cut off from the mainland. But the most intriguing geographical features in Qatar are not to be found near the salt flats or the beautiful inland sea. Rather, it is the subterranean caverns – the dahl – which are the most magical. These collapsed caverns con
tain pools of refreshing water.

  Local language

  While many of the words traditionally used to describe Qatar’s geographic features are known to classical Arabic, most have taken on a more localised meaning. I mention some of these words in part to give the reader a taste for the local vernacular – Jassim’s language. This is also a record, however, of a vocabulary that may not survive many more decades in the inevitable march towards development and modernity.

  Central Qatar is a limestone plateau, known as the barr Gatar – barr meaning a stony desert. In Jassim’s time, a high rocky hill was known as a yihzila, whereas a small low mound was a hdiba. The western hills were known as the Mashabiyya. The wind-eroded hills of the east were sometimes known as gehaab, and the hills that form a very marked scarp, capped by a harder limestone, were known as birag because of the brightness of the rock, which makes them stand out clearly.

  The term nakhsh means nose and is used for a prominent spur, as in, for example, the plunging end of the Dukhan ridge in the south. Two other terms, jurn and tiwaar, were also in general use. The former is an isolated horn-shaped hill, whereas the tiwaar is a flat-topped mesa.

  As elsewhere in the Gulf, place names often begin with Umm or Abu – that is, the mother or father of some natural feature, animal or tribal incident. Some of these places might also have been described as a rawda – a semi-permanent grazing area with a well and a very low-lying grass called naiim covering it. Less useful pasturage, but with a little water, would be called a jiri. Leading into these depressions are small, shallow valleys – the wadis well known in the West. Small, short stream courses in which a little vegetation was to be found were called shi’b. A little to the east of the central plateau are the smooth plains, the rigga, with a surface of finer stones called hashu and a reddish dust, niiga.

  As the dust-bearing north-west wind, the shimal, blows across the peninsula it begins to deposit sand leeward of anything in its path, even tufts of grass. This could be the birth of a dune. This initial deposit is called a ramla, or in some parts of Qatar a bratha. The ramla develops into a long, narrow dune, called an ‘irg by the Al Murra tribesmen, and a sahib by the ‘Awamir. Both tribes, however, referred to the long, low-lying dune as an ‘urgiib.

  Gradually, this small mound would grow into a medium–size dune known as a zubar. If it continued to expand, sand would eventually form the individual crescent shape known to geographers as a barkhan. These dunes always have their apex pointing towards the north-west. At this point in its development, the dune will grow two arms parallel to the direction of the wind. The gentler-sloping, hard-packed windward side is known as dhahr al-khait and the steep leeward side as sayyal. Towards the sea these dunes become interlinked to form a sand sea, a nigyan. Although there were many different words used to describe dunes, if detail was unnecessary a Bedouin couldn’t go far wrong using the word nagd – a plain, bog-standard dune with nothing special about it whatsoever!

  Water in the area is rare, and a well in the southern desert is called an ‘ugla. There are two popular theories as to the origin of this term. Some say it is due to the fact that the wells are shallow with a depth not exceeding the length of an ‘aqal – the band of cord that kept the Bedouin’s headdress on. Others say it refers to the place where a tribe stops and ‘ties up’. Whatever the origin, a well wouldn’t always contain water. A temporary rock pool on a hill would be called a mishaash. But rainfall would gather in geological depressions known as wa’ ab for longer periods in the winter in the north of the peninsula.

  The vocabulary used to describe Qatar’s natural features on its coast has ended up in the names of its greatest towns today. A cape is called ras, a bay doha and a narrow inlet khor. The whole peninsula enjoys a small tidal range, small enough for ships to be safely hauled up, repaired and relaunched with a minimum of difficulty. And since the land is low lying, salt pans – the sbakha – were created with considerable ease. Low beaches were also encountered inland from the present shoreline and concentrated deposits of shells, called sabban, are still found in places that seem very far from the sea.

  Maps

  Although the peninsula is such a marked cartographical feature, it is remarkable how little information existed about it until relatively recent times. It is not until well into the nineteenth century that the Emirate’s outline becomes recognisable on detailed maps. Earlier representations usually showed two large islands, with a varying number of smaller ones, corresponding to Bahrain, and only a slight bulge from the mainland opposite. A river and the ‘village’ of al-Hasa ran into the sea in the vicinity of the Bay of Salwa. Early references to Qatar are few and rarely extend to more than the name itself. The earliest Arab geographer to mention the peninsula is Ibn Khuradadhbeh in the ninth century, recording it as one of the stops en route from Basra to Oman. Al-Hamdani also mentions Qatar in the tenth century, but only among a list of places in a general description of the Arabian peninsula. It seems that at this time Qatar was seen as a point on a route and not a destination. But even as late as Yaqut and Ibn Manzur of the thirteenth century, Qatar is only briefly noted as a village or town.

  The name Qatar would come to be recorded in the West by a man whose entire life was an adventure. The sixteenth-century Portuguese adventurer Pedro Teixeira, who had travelled up the Amazon by canoe, to the amazement of the Spanish garrison at Quito, was also the first Westerner known to have used the name. ‘The fishery of Barhen begins in some years in June, but more usually in July, and goes on during that month and August,’ he wrote. ‘A fleet is formed of about two hundred “terradas” and … commonly goes to fish at Katar, a port of Arabia, ten leagues south of the Isle of Barhen.’

  A hundred years later, and following the settlement of the Kuwaiti Al Khalifa at the north-west town of Zubara, historical and geographical details become more readily available. The north-west and east coasts down to the present-day oil terminal of Umm Said, as well as Qatar’s pearl banks, were well known and clearly marked by Arab navigators. And following the Persian attack on Basra in 1776, many of the city’s merchants took refuge in Zubara, and for a short while the town enjoyed great prosperity.

  Even more Qatari names are recognisable on maps of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, thanks, in part, to the son of a farmer from LÜdingworth, in what is today Lower Saxony. Karsten Niebuhr not only adopted local dress in his travels through Yemen and the Arabian peninsula, but managed to build on his smattering of Arabic to become the foremost cartographer of the Middle East. His 1794 map includes a ‘Deh Rogn’, ‘deh’ meaning a village and ‘Rogn’ referring to Rakan at the northern tip of the peninsula – a prominent landmark for sailors. His earlier map of 1765 also shows Huali and Faraha (al-Huwaila and al-Fareha). On the mainland is ‘Khau’, which might possibly be Khor Hasan, as well as the Bay of Salwa. And on the map of the Gulf published in his Voyage en Arabie, Niebuhr marks the land east of this estuary ‘Gattar’.

  A more detailed Qatar is well shown on a map in an atlas published by Philippe Vandermaelen in 1827. This Flemish cartographer’s Universal Atlas had made him very famous in his own lifetime, and spurred various military colleges to invest time and effort in Europe’s continuing expansion. His atlas marks four places in a group on the mainland, two of which are definitely recognisable as Core Hessan (Khor Hasan, today known as al-Khuwair) and Jumale (al-Jumail).

  By this time, however, a definitive work was well under way. In 1822, after more peaceful conditions had been imposed along the Trucial coast, a British survey of this area was undertaken by the Indian navy, and by April 1825 the two survey vessels – Discovery and Psyche – had completed their work. One of the officers involved also recorded another first – the earliest documented visit by an Englishman to Qatar. A spectacularly unimpressed Lieutenant Grubb landed at Bida in 1822, clearly missing the gardens of England: ‘A most miserable place, not a blade of grass nor any kind of vegetation near it.’ It seems, however, that this survey’s detailed
and accurate naval charts were made readily available neither to the general public nor to the military. Even as late as 1923, the British army’s Captain R. E. Cheesman, a keen amateur ornithologist, had to make do on his birdwatching expedition with a map that represented the entire west coast of Qatar as a dotted line!

  Nevertheless, the world had become much smaller and the competition between various empires for control in the Gulf would lead to garrisons and explorers opening up Qatar. The German traveller Hermann Burchardt, who traversed the Emirate from Salwa to Doha via Mukenis in January 1904, took the first-ever photographs of the peninsula. A few years later, a remarkably accurate description of the geography of the peninsula and its tribes appears in John Lorimer’s monumental work, Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. The British administrator’s work can be said to have truly introduced the Emirate to the world.

  These days Qatar is a country of gas, oil and opportunity; its rapidly expanding capital of Doha is an extraordinary mix of ethnicities. The native population has increased tenfold since the discovery of oil in 1940. And thanks to its proven reserves of fossil fuels, Qatar now has the world’s highest GDP per capita. But today’s success was entirely dependent on a generation of men who forged a unified state out of tribal disunity, and a leader who could steer the country clear of foreign and imperial machinations.

  1

  INTRODUCTION: 5,000 YEARS IN THIRTEEN PAGES

  I’M GUESSING the ancient Babylonian priest and astronomer Berosus could tell a story or two. Sceptical readers may not credit his account of how a merman, Oannes, swam up the Arabian Gulf to gift its peoples with science and civilisation, but maybe they should. For though Berosus was no slave to accuracy, he demonstrated a gift for the symbolic. Qatar owes a lot to the sea, historically for what was in it, and today for what is under it. And this sea hasn’t given up its treasures easily. For over five thousand years, its waters have ensured that the men living off it possess great strength of character and mind – qualities Sheikh Jassim had in abundance.